Africa – UAB Institute for Human Rights Blog

Bo-Kaap, a History of Resistance and Identity

Sitting at Aisha’s Kitchen on a Friday afternoon in Bo-Kaap, Cape Town, South Africa, I had the pleasure to talk to a local community organizer. Being Cape Malay himself, he shared his experiences growing in the community and the challenges they had faced. With the call to prayer in the background, he shared about the lack of engagement from the community and personal struggles people were going through. However, he was cut short by a handful of young girls from the community joining us. They asked him how he was and he asked about their families while introducing me – “Say Salaam to your aunty.” With a short introduction, we chatted with the girls, no older than 11, about their days, favorite chocolates, and their love for Bo-Kaap.

While staying in Bantry Bay, it was a journey to get all the way to Bo-Kaap. Though they are both within the same city radius of Cape Town, Bo-Kaap represents a small neighborhood. My initial understanding was that it was a simple tourist destination, but through each mural, each step, and each conversation, I recognized that the community is a living archive of struggle and resilience. The vibrancy of Bo-Kaap today represents the lengthy history of marginalized communities fighting for rights and dignity, especially in the face of colonialism, slavery, apartheid, and gentrification.

Photo 1: Inside a local mosque in Bo-Kaap.Credit: Wajiha Mekki — Photo 1: Inside a local mosque in Bo-Kaap.
Credit: Wajiha Mekki

Origins of Bo-Kaap

Bo-Kaap was founded in the 1760s, when Jan de Waal bought a set of land to be leased out to his slaves. These individuals were from a variety of locations: Malaysia, Indonesia, India, and elsewhere. Enslaved individuals slowly populated the area. This was brought to fruition by the Dutch’s involvement in the Atlantic slave trade. Originally, Bo-Kaap was divided into four areas: the Malay Quarter, Stadzicht, Schotsche Kloof and Schoone Kloof. During this time, residential development was limited. However, once Cape Town came under the occupation of the British in 1795, the residential development accelerated, creating modest housing. This growth corresponded with the desires of the British, who wanted to develop Cape Town to increase their profit margins.

Over time, Bo-Kaap became a place of refuge for others beyond Cape Malay individuals; Filipinos, Africans, Italians, and others moved to Bo-Kaap voluntarily and found a home there due to proximity to their work spaces.

Understanding Bo-Kaap means understanding Cape Town and its history. Cape Town under Apartheid was met with many challenges. In 1948, South Africa divided the city into ethnically separate areas; the dynamic nature of Cape Town was quickly disrupted. Banishing communities from the coastline to new settlements was just one of the steps taken to enforce such policies. Another step was the Group Areas Act of 1950, which officially banned neighborhoods from being multiracial and segregated races from each other. This Act categorized Cape Town as a “whites-only” area of the country, which impacted diverse neighborhoods in the city, but the attempt to truly claim the city for whites alone was quickly fought off by the Bo-Kaap community, a small but mighty neighborhood. These anti-segregation efforts included local mosques, who protected the right of Malay South Africans to live in Bo-Kaap. As a result of this fight, the area was then declared as Cape Malay only, allowing hundreds of families to continue living in Bo-Kaap. Many people who were living in adjacent neighborhoods that were stripped of their multiracial character, such as District Six, were also moved to Bo-Kaap.

With the tragic history of Apartheid, it is critical to note its infringement of fundamental rights to movement, housing, family integrity, and equality. The history of Bo-Kaap and its survival demonstrates the role of collective action in protecting communities and their rights.

Bo-Kaap as a Center of Cultural and Religious Freedom

In addition to the political history of Bo-Kaap, there is a rich cultural one, too. The beauty of Bo-Kaap is that it provided many Cape Malays the security to practice their religion because of the area’s unique location being far enough from Dutch settlements whilst still being close to the city center. Despite trials and tribulations, enslaved individuals maintained their faith and a sense of community.

One way that individuals in Bo-Kaap developed an opportunity to continue their community is through Afrikaans. This language, which is a mix of Portuguese, Malay, and Dutch that started in the general Cape Colony, was born of necessity. Especially considering that many enslaved individuals were from a variety of locations, it was critical for them to be able to communicate with one another, and Afrikaans gave them an opportunity to do so. The creolization of Dutch evolved as a hybrid language that allowed all groups of the Dutch colony to connect with one another. While religion played a large role in the early written text of Afrikaans being written in Arabic, the spoken language became a lingua franca for the multi-ethnic community of Bo-Kaap and South Africa more generally.

The integration of Islam as the backbone of the Bo-Kaap community was seen through Auwal Mosque, which was created in 1794. Slowly, more Muslims moved into Bo-Kaap, and this movement was accelerated with emancipation of all slaves in 1834. With the abolition of slavery, a new chapter was bright for the community. Auwal Mosque was not the only mosque anymore, as there was now more than one mosque on every street, and madrassas were developed to better teach Islam and integrate the philosophies of the religion in the community.

Photo 2: A corner market named Tawakal which translates to trust in Arabic.Credit: Wajiha Mekki — Photo 2: A corner market named Tawakal which translates to trust in Arabic.
Credit: Wajiha Mekki

Current Challenges

The bright colors of Bo-Kaap represent hope, but that hope is being dimmed by current challenges. As a result of Cape Town’s economic development and expansion, property in Bo-Kaap is sought after. Businesses, AirBnBs, and other businesses are popping up. But this growth has been at the expense of the community, which is facing a dissolution of its character and unity. It has also negatively impacted community members by resulting in the eviction of long-term tenants due to landlords raising the rents and changing ownership to pursue commercial properties over residential ones, effectively leaving communities to have lived there for years without stability.

In the face of these difficulties, there have been many efforts to preserve the community and heritage of Bo-Kaap. One way has been the establishment of Bo-Kaap as a Heritage Protection Overlay Zone, which is a special planning layer for Bo-Kaap to protect its historic nature. This is effective on paper, but residents have mentioned the presence of loopholes that make it difficult for this measure alone to truly protect the community in Bo-Kaap. Protests are also critical in how the community expresses its concern, as protests allow residents to share their sentiments about how they are overwhelmed by extreme tourism.

The situation described here depicts the tension between development and cultural rights, especially as the right to housing security and the right to cultural heritage are emerging as dimensions of human rights.

Why Bo-Kaap Matters Today

From slavery to Apartheid to gentrification, Bo-Kaap represents a community that safeguards human rights. The idea of identity and heritage being at the core of human rights in Bo-Kaap represents the global struggle of equity, equality, and inclusion. In the modern context of communities striving for space, history, and belonging, it is critical to understand marginalized communities and understand their contributions to society. In addition, protecting these places strengthens human rights and democratic values across the nation.

As I reflect on my time in Bo-Kaap and on being in the community to learn, I am grateful to have observed a sliver of the beauty of the community and am confident that intentional engagement with communities, where visitors seek to learn rather than consume, will support the long term development of communities across the world. Bo-Kaap and its resilience through Apartheid and gentrification demonstrate the value of community when approaching challenges. The Bo-Kaap community has suffered many violations of the right to housing, expression, and more; as we work to support communities, it is critical to listen to their stories and approach solutions holistically.

Satellite Images of Sudan: The Massacre of El-Fasher

Refugee camp for internally displaced persons, with poor living conditions, lack of water, hygiene, shelter and food. — image 1: Refugee camp for internally displace persons (IDPs). Source: Adobe Stock. By Miros. Asset ID: 541706476.

From far away, the tiny objects littering the grounds of El-Fasher, Sudan might not look like anything, slightly discolored; their white and red spots show a stark contrast to the once empty space captured by Satellite images a couple of days prior. Other images show burnt vehicles and dark spots outside of buildings. To the untrained eye, they might not look like much, but the images, collected on October 28, 2025, verify the ongoing massacre of the city, and the white and red discoloration, the bodies of those killed.

Yale University’s Humanitarian Crisis research team has been collecting satellite images of Sudan throughout the civil war. Recent results found that 31 of the clusters from the satellite images were consistent with human remains. Communication within El Fasher has been extremely restricted since the invasion and mass killings by the Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Those who escaped report people being beaten, robbed, and killed in their pursuit to escape, with children witnessing their parents being gunned down. One of the most concerning factors, reported by Yale University, is the absence of movement within the city.

The ongoing civil war in Sudan, which began in April 2023, has resulted in the destruction of cities, the death of thousands, and the starvation and displacement of millions. In my previous blog, Chlorine Warfare in Sudan’s Ongoing Humanitarian Crisis, the SAF’s use of chlorine gas was evaluated in relation to International Humanitarian Law, along with the humanitarian crisis in Sudan. With the recent massacre of El-Fasher, satellite images have further highlighted the devastation of the war.

International Humanitarian Law outlines the protections of civilians, medical workers, civilian infrastructure, and hospitals. Violations of these are considered war crimes. Throughout the war, both the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Force (RSF) have violated International Humanitarian Law and committed war crimes. This blog will discuss the recent satellite images and the end to the 500-day siege of El-Fasher, which highlights the human rights and international humanitarian law violations that are occurring there.

The End of the 500 Day Siege and the Massacre of El-Fasher

Map of Sudan that shows the main conflict forces. Source: Adobe Stock. By Serhii. Asset ID: 817218906 — Image 2: Map of Sudan: Main Conflict Forces. Source: Adobe Stock. By Serhii. Asset ID: 817218906

Darfur, a region located in west Sudan, holds El-Fasher, the capital of North Darfur. This region borders Chad, which has seen an influx in refugees since the start of the civil war. El-Fasher was the last major stronghold controlled by the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) in Darfur. On October 23, 2025, after the 500-day siege of El Fasher, RSF fighters targeted civilian homes; large scale execution, starvation, and sexual violence have ensued.

Targeting civilians, civilian infrastructure, hospitals, medical workers, and humanitarian workers are all violations of International Humanitarian Law and constitute war crimes. There have also been reports of summary executions that specifically target certain ethnic groups. Summary killing means the execution of a person or people who are accused of a crime but have not been given a trial.

In Tawila, a town close to El-Fasher, 652,000 displaced people are taking shelter. Since the RSF took control of El Fasher, hospitals, their patients and medical workers have been targeted. Reports state that in the Saudi Maternity Hospital, which is located in El-Fasher, patients were massacred, medics were attacked, and humanitarian workers were targeted. In this hospital, which had survived multiple bombings and continued to offer medical aid, close to 500 people were executed.

While the RSF have consistently committed atrocities against civilians and humanitarian aid workers, the SAF have also recklessly bombed areas, which has caused the death of civilians and reduced civilian infrastructure to rubble. The SAF has also contributed to the increase in sexual violence throughout the war, tortured people, desecrated bodies, and killed people without first giving them a trial.

In Human Rights Watch’s report on Sudan, they stated that both the RSF and the SAF are complicit in blocking aid. Both sides have also knowingly targeted local first responders. Throughout the war, one thing has been apparent; both sides are willing to target civilians and commit war crimes in order to get what they want. This brutality has been dramatically apparent in El-Fasher, where there is disturbing evidence that a massacre is likely to have occurred there in recent weeks.

Satellite Imaging Evidence

Image 3: Peaceful protester holds sign representing Sudanese flag in front of his face. Source: Adobe Stock. By: Gérard Bottino. Assert ID#: 273049844.

There are many difficulties in gathering accurate information about ongoing atrocities, given the dangers of reporting from such areas and the challenges of communicating information from the affected areas to the outside world. Because of this, satellite imagery can be highly useful for producing real-time assessments of severe human rights abuses such as those being committed in El-Fasher. Throughout the end of October, 2025, Yale University observed and collected satellite imaging of El-Fasher, Sudan. In a side by side of two images, there are clusters of objects and ground discoloration. On October 27th, the viewer can see a group of objects with red and white discoloration around it. Just four days later, on October 31st, you can see the cluster on the ground, but the red and white discoloration have faded. This can be seen in Yale University’s Humanitarian Crisis Research Lab’s report on satellite imaging in El-Fasher, Sudan, on page 28. The report interprets this information as follows:

“Yale HRL assesses the fading of red discoloration as an additional data point corroborating its assessments that these discolorations are related to bodily fluid including red” (pg. 7, Yale School of Public Health: Humanitarian Research Lab).

On page 29 of the report, you can see clusters of objects near and around the Al-Saudi Hospital, taken on October 28, 2025. In the images, white objects surround the outside walls of the hospital. These objects are not seen in satellite images that were taken of the area prior to October 28th, and they are not seen again in images taken on October 31st, see page 30.

Yale HRL reports that its recent satellite images have not picked up any mass movement heading out of El-Fasher, even though the city was said to have an estimated 250,000 people living there. The lack of movement is suspicious, and Yale HRL interprets it as indicating “that the majority of civilians are dead, captured, or in hiding” (see page 3 of the report). In the absence of reliable communications from El-Fasher, this satellite imagery provides essential documentation of likely human rights abuses that can be used to inform the human rights community and spur people to action.

Conclusion

In the weeks since RSF ransacked El-Fasher, around 100,00 people have escaped to nearby villages. The situation in Sudan continues to be critical, and the situation in El-Fasher, dire. There are still people trapped within the city, and little information has come out in regards to how many were killed by the RSF.

The estimated number of people residing in El-Fasher before the conflict was 250,000, not including those taking refuge there. With only 100,000 people having been reported to have escaped, this leaves over half the population of El-Fasher unaccounted for. According to the reports, there has been little movement within the city, with the images of clusters and discolorations a testament to that. These indications that grave human rights abuses have recently been committed in El-Fasher should concern human rights defenders everywhere.

Clean Energy, Poor Practices: Africa’s Minerals Power Renewables

At the second African Climate Summit, leaders discussed the role of Africa’s critical minerals in climate change and sustainable development. The African Union’s joint statement at the global COP30 climate summit highlighted the continent’s potential to be a climate leader, with its “abundant natural resources, […] young and dynamic workforce, and vast renewable energy potential.” This article examines Africa’s mineral industry, which could be key to the fight against the climate crisis.

Africa’s Minerals and Renewable Energy

The world is moving away from fossil fuels and towards clean energy, as renewables become the world’s dominant energy source. This is necessary to limit emissions and strive toward climate goals such as the Paris Agreement’s commitment to keeping the global temperature increase under 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, but non-fossil fuel renewable energy alternatives also require the extraction of Earth’s natural resources.

As countries across the world push forward with the latest energy transition—the shift from traditional energy sources like coal and oil to renewable energy like wind and solar—Africa’s mineral deposits are increasingly critical to supplying the world’s energy. They store much of the world’s “transition minerals,” natural resources used in renewable technologies like lithium-ion batteries and solar panels. At the Africa Climate Summit 2025, the UN Economic Commissioner for Africa warned that there was the potential to “repeat the exploitative patterns of the past,” as the demand for the minerals used in renewable technologies increases.

The transition mineral industry is fraught with human rights abuses, notably labor rights violations and environmental injustices. Violations of the 23rd article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which protects workers’ rights to favorable working conditions and living wages, are commonplace. The Democratic Republic of the Congo has been at the center of conversations regarding Africa’s mining industry, where conflict, illegal mining operations, and smuggling endanger the people who provide the minerals for the world’s technology.

Exploitation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)

The Business and Human Rights Resource Centre tracked 178 cases of abuse from 2010-2024 in the transition mineral industry; mines in the DRC accounted for over half of these abuses. In a 2023 report, Amnesty International found that “multinational mining companies are forcibly evicting communities from their homes and farmlands in the name of energy transition mining” in the DRC. The exploitation present in the DRC is exacerbated by violent conflict, corporate irresponsibility, and the prevalence of illegal, dangerous operations.

Miners carry supplies in an African mine — Miners carry supplies in a mine. Rubaya, DRC. By: Erberto Zani. Source: Adobe Stock. Asset ID#: 1047185175

Conflict Minerals in the DRC

Key to the conflict between the DRC government and the Rwanda-backed M23 rebel group has been control of valuable mines, like Rubaya’s coltan mine. Coltan is an ore that contains tantalum, which is used in the electric car batteries that are key to reducing fossil fuel reliance in transportation. In Rubaya, armed militants patrol impoverished workers, including children, who earn a meager wage to mine and transport coltan. A UN report revealed that a Rwandan exporter purchased coltan that was smuggled by militant groups in the DRC, funding the M23’s deadly offensive in the Eastern DRC. When minerals are used to finance and compound human rights abuses, they are called “conflict minerals.”

Conflict Minerals in the Corporate Supply Chain

Tesla, which uses tantalum in their products, outlines a “responsible materials policy” and explicitly states that it has made efforts to “eliminate from [their] value chain any benefits [their] sourcing of these materials may give to armed groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and its adjoining countries.” However, a Global Witness report details how smuggled minerals, like coltan from Rubaya, are sourced from unvalidated mines and “laundered,” ending up in the global supply chain. The report names Tesla as one of the companies potentially profiting from this system. The use of conflict minerals in consumer products is just one facet of the human rights implications of transition minerals. Another important aspect to consider is how these natural resources are obtained.

Electric cars charging at charging station outdoors at sunset. — Electric cars charging at charging station. By: logoboom. Source: Adobe Stock. Asset ID#: 484699085

Unregulated Mining: Ramifications of Informal Operations

Illegal and informal mining operations also put people at risk. Artisanal and small-scale mining sites can expose miners to toxic chemicals like arsenic and cyanide, and the overcrowded conditions produce a high risk of infectious disease, among other dangers. Transition minerals like cobalt are among the resources obtained through artisanal and small-scale mining in the DRC. Harvard researcher Siddarth Kara, in a conversation with NPR, outlines the hazardous conditions, child labor, and corruption embedded in cobalt mining in the DRC. He calls the conditions “modern-day slavery.”

An Overview of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining

The transition mineral industry is driving the use of illegal artisanal and small-scale mining operations in Africa. 10 million sub-Saharan Africans are artisanal and small-scale miners. Artisanal and small-scale mining is a diverse practice, mostly carried out by subsistence miners or small-scale industry, and some believe that artisanal and small-scale mining has the potential to provide critical minerals and drive economic development in Africa. However, it is a complex and controversial practice with consequences for labor and environmental rights.

Artisanal and small-scale mining can be driven by poverty and scarce employment opportunities. Other actors, like Chinese nationals, also participate in the practice, benefiting from what is often an illegal and unregulated system.

Unregulated artisanal and small-scale mining can threaten environmental health, which has downstream effects on human health. Artisanal and small-scale mining has been linked to water pollution, mercury contamination, and reduced water flow to nearby agriculture. Artisanal mining was responsible for high levels of mercury in crops, water, and the miners themselves in Ghana. Others criticize the practice for driving up the cost of living by displacing local activities like food production, thereby trapping workers in a cycle of poverty.

Artisanal miner in Mauritania using mercury, a highly toxic chemical, to agglomerate gold. By: Christophe. Source: Adobe Stock. Asset ID#: 524805503

An Economically Sustainable and Human-Oriented Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector

Despite challenges, the artisanal and small-scale mining sector has the potential to drive economic growth and provide a livelihood for millions of Africans. One proposed step toward a more equitable and community-focused artisanal and small-scale mining sector is formalizing the mining process in a way that does not simply issue more licenses but also considers environmental and social responsibility. A “livelihood-oriented formalization” can mean miners have a secure income rather than working for shelter, food, or a small share of profits; implementing worker safety principles can reduce accidents and limit the spread of communicable disease. Formalizing artisanal and small-scale mining should include a comprehensive reconsideration of the current processes, with the well-being of miners at the forefront.

Corporate and Government Responsibility

Transition mining involves small-scale operations, but large multinational corporations also play a significant role in determining how minerals are obtained. The role of corporate social responsibility in mitigating human rights abuses is controversial. Companies like Tesla, as mentioned before, have come under fire for being complicit in the sale of conflict minerals, and mining companies expel people from their homes. In recent years, multinational corporations have begun to consider themselves as part of the solution to human rights issues in Africa. Corporations that adopt rigorous due diligence standards can offset some of the failures of fragile governments, such as the DRC, in enforcing industry-wide rules.

Hope for an Equitable Transition Mineral Industry

Africa’s critical transition minerals will be vital to replacing fossil fuels that pollute the atmosphere and accelerate climate change. With an equitable structure, the mining industry has the potential to bring jobs and capital to Africa; however, the current prevailing model of unregulated and dangerous mines, conflict-sourced minerals, entrenched poverty, and chronic environmental damage is not sustainable or fair to the people who supply some of the world’s most valuable and necessary resources. In recent years, some legal progress has been made; Congolese miners have won cases against cobalt mining companies for wrongful termination, injury compensation, and union representation. Continuing these efforts could bring about a world powered by renewable energy that doesn’t sacrifice miners’ human rights.

Zambia Acid Spill: The Death of a River and the Ongoing Struggle of Local Communities to Recover

This year in Zambia, Chambishi residents saw the Kafue River die before their eyes. Millions of liters of acidic, contaminated water containing toxic mining chemicals burst from a dam in February. Crops and animals died as residents suffered the effects of careless mining practices. This incident raises questions about environmental concerns regarding current mining practices in Zambia, as well as how to address cleanup and compensation for affected communities whose human rights were violated by this event.

Dam Failure and Toxic Water Spill

On February 18, a dam at the Sino-Metals Leach Zambia mining site collapsed, releasing a reported 50 million liters of contaminated water that flooded into the Chambishi Copper Belt region. Toxic spillage, containing heavy metals and high levels of acidity, flowed at least 60 miles down the Kafue River, a major river in Zambia used by many locals for fishing, irrigation, and water.

Image of the Kafue River in Zambia — Image of the Kafue River Source: Olympian Xeus, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

The immediate effects on the region were apparent in the devastation to local wildlife. The head of a Zambian monitoring group, Nsama Rusonda, reported the aftermath of the acid spill was shocking, saying, “It was a horror to see maize, bean crops that were green the night before, just turn brown. Tonnes of dead fish were floating in local riverways.” The environmental devastation was one of the first things to catch locals’ attention, but as time goes on, more and more effects of the toxic spill are becoming apparent.

Initial Reports and Health Concerns of Residents

The Kafue River is one of the largest rivers in Zambia, and many locals use it as a source of water for drinking, washing, and for their animals and crops. In the days after the spill, people ingested toxins through contaminated water and food, leading to “headaches, coughs, diarrhea, muscle cramps, and even sores on their legs.” Zambia’s reliance on the Kafue also exacerbates the seriousness of the crisis. 21 million people live in Zambia, and more than half rely on the river for water. For example, health concerns led to the water being turned off in the city of Kitwe, leaving 700,000 people without access to water. To drive home the magnitude of this catastrophe, Kitwe is Zambia’s second-largest city, and cutting off water to 700,000 people would be like cutting off the water to all of Washington, DC.

Officials from the Sino-Metal mining company expressed their regret for the incident shortly after it occurred, stating their intent to assist both with environmental cleanup efforts and to re-establish the economic means of affected individuals. To determine the scope of the damage, Sino-Metals needed to conduct an ecological study. South African company Drizit found that 1.5 million tonnes of hazardous waste were released during the dam collapse, 30 times the 50,000 tonnes initially reported by Sino-Metal. The need for outside observers during environmental disasters is crucial. It’s necessary to provide an objective report on the damage that communities and nations, particularly developing ones, have suffered, so they can respond appropriately, warn their residents, and hold parties accountable for human rights violations.

Official Response

In the days after the spill, the Zambian government worked to reverse the environmental damage. Hundreds of tons of lime were dumped into affected waterways in an effort to combat acidity from the spill. Zambian officials faced the challenge of finding an appropriate response that balanced harm to residents with environmental concerns, while also working with foreign powers and important infrastructure investments in their country. When Sino-Metals gave a $580,000 payout, Zambian Vice-President Nalumango remarked that this must be coupled with neutral environmental analysis to ensure proper reparations. Nalumango further said, “If the damage to the land and livelihoods proves to be more extensive or long-lasting than initially understood, then further compensation will be necessary and it will be pursued.” This approach will allow flexibility in Zambia’s approach, enabling it to assess whether additional negative effects arise for residents over time and then pursue more compensation accordingly.

Despite the words promising accountability and help from Sino-Metal, Zambia’s ability to force them into meaningful action remains limited. In direct response to the acid spill, Zambia fined Sino-Metals $50,000. This fine is not enough for restoration efforts and is an insignificant amount compared to the widespread damage to Zambia and the harm done to communities. Differences in political and economic power between countries may create additional difficulties when a smaller country is seeking recourse against a larger one. This may especially true for Zambia, a country heavily dependent on copper production, which has received $3.5 billion in investments from China in the past two decades associated with mining and metal in Zambia. Such dependence on economic support from larger countries may dissuade countries from taking action against foreign players in order to continue receiving funding.

Recent Analysis

While bureaucracy and legal proceedings may take months, residents face daily struggles in the aftermath of the disaster. Conditions from the spill persist in their toxicity to such a degree that Finland issued a travel advisory regarding high levels of toxic heavy metals in the water, and the US embassy issued an evacuation order for all officials from the area, citing health concerns related to the environmental state. In light of such serious concerns raised by other countries, Zambia was thrust into the international spotlight.

With global attention, Zambia seemed to dismiss concerns and assure that harms had been dealt with. A spokesperson from Zambia reported, “pH levels have returned to normal and concentrations of heavy metals are steadily decreasing, which means that the immediate danger to human, animal and plant life has been averted.”

Image of a conveyor belt with coal on it at a mine — Conveyor systems, often used in mining operations. Source: pkproject via Adobe Stock Images, Licensed for Educational Use

Residents affected by the pollution continue to complain of many physical ailments, including headaches and diarrhea, but the Zambian government’s dismissive attitudes towards concerns seems as though they are prioritizing their appearance and foreign investors over their citizens’ right to health.

While the mining sector is crucial for much of Zambia’s economic activity, it is, from a human rights standpoint, unacceptable for the government to not protect its citizens and to ignore or hide obvious and continued harms. A government’s duty to the wellbeing of its citizens should be foremost in its response during a crisis.

Chinese Influences and Zambia’s Future

This is not the only time mining activities have concerned residents in Zambia. In the past, residents have contracted lead poisoning from pollution incidents and mining operations, while schools have been shut down due to noise and hazardous chemicals.

Balancing China’s interests in minerals with protecting Zambia’s environment and communities is a difficult task for Zambia, especially when they have received billions in funding from China and are over $4 billion in debt to China. These power imbalances can lead to struggles for accountability and justice at both the community and national levels.

This toxic spill is only one event in a disturbing pattern of environmental devastation in Zambia. Access to clean water, secure livelihoods, and environmental justice are crucial to the survival and well-being of many residents. The Zambian response to this latest disaster will set expectations for future interactions and shape the fate of thousands of Zambians, and it is to be hoped that Zambia prioritizes its citizens’ human rights over all other concerns.

Chlorine Warfare in Sudan’s Ongoing Humanitarian Crisis

Image 1: Peaceful protester holds sign representing Sudanese flag in front of his face. Source: Adobe Stock. By: Gérard Bottino. Assert ID#: 273049844.

Gaseous chlorine is a yellow-greenish gas that, when inhaled, is extremely toxic and harmful to the body. It is a pulmonary irritant that burns conjunctiva, the throat, and the bronchial tree. In plain terms, it is a choking agent. When chlorine gas is inhaled, the respiratory tract is severely affected. The air sac in the lungs begins to secrete fluid, which causes a person to feel as if they are drowning. When used as a weapon, chlorine gas causes severe respiratory issues and, in extreme cases, death.

Recently, evidence has been brought forth in regards to Sudan’s military using chlorine gas as a weapon. The use of chlorine gas as a weapon goes against the Chemical Weapons Convention and is considered a war crime. Previously, at the end of 2024, a blog was written in relation to the civil war in Sudan by another blog writer. If you would like to read about the beginning of the war check out Delisha Valacheril’s blog post Civil War in Sudan: What is Happening and How to Help. This blog will address the Sudanese military’s use of chlorine gas amidst the humanitarian crisis and ongoing civil war in Sudan.

The Sudanese Military’s Use of Chlorine Gas:

Image 2: Sudanese soldier with assault rifle. Source Adobe Stock. By: Bumble Dee. Asset ID#388763922.

On May 22, 2025, the U.S. Department of State released a press statement that determined that the Sudanese military had used chemical weapons in 2024 that were in violation of the Chemical and Biological Weapons Control and Warfare Elimination Act of 1991 (CBW Act). The statement neglected to detail which chemicals were used, and the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) denied any such use of chemicals.

Since the U.S. Department of State’s press statement in May 2025, new evidence of the Sudanese military’s using chemical weapons has emerged. International news channel France 24 observed two incidents that occurred in September 2024, where the Sudanese Army was attempting to recapture al-Jaili oil refinery, which was then under Rapid Support Forces (RSF) control. In France 24’s investigation, they discovered that the chlorine canisters found around the oil refinery could only be carried by aircraft that the Sudanese military has exclusive access to.

Along with that, one of the oil barrels was imported from India by a Sudanese company that also supplies the Sudanese Army. The pictures and videos containing evidence of chlorine gas being used can be viewed in France 24’s report, linked here. In the pictures yellow-green clouds and large canisters with the remnant of a bright yellow chemical can be seen.

From a legal lens, all nations that ratify a convention or treaty are legally obligated to follow those regulations and rules. Violations of the Chemical Weapons Convention are considered war crimes and are potentially punishable in the International Criminal Court (ICC). Sudan ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1999, meaning that the state is legally obligated to adhere to the agreed-upon terms of the convention.

Utilizing chlorine gas as a weapon is a violation of the Chemical Weapons Convention. As such, the use of chemicals by Sudan’s military is considered a war crime and, should the individuals responsible be identified, they could be punished in the International Criminal Court (ICC). This violation also goes against international humanitarian law, which seeks to decrease the effects of armed conflict and protects non-combatants. The deliberate use of chlorine gas, which affected not only RSF, but also civilians working at the oil refinery, emphasizes the growing danger in Sudan.

The Ongoing War in Sudan and Humanitarian Crisis:

Image 3: Refugee camp full of people who took refuge due to insecurity and armed conflict. Source: Adobe Stock. By: Miros. Asset ID#541706323

The ongoing war officially began April 15, 2023 when Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and RSF engaged in violent conflict, which both sides stated the other started. Prior to the war, tensions had been increasing between leadership of the SAF and RSF. Background on the conflict and leadership is available in the aforementioned blog post Civil War in Sudan: What is Happening and How to Help.

However, as far back as 2016, there have been reports of chemical weapons being used on people in Darfur, a remote area in Sudan. Amnesty International found evidence that these weapons had resulted in the injury and death of many Sudanese civilians. In September of 2016, Amnesty International reported that around 30 chemical attacks were used in remote areas within Darfur, Sudan. These attacks resulted in chemical injuries and painful deaths. The people most affected by these attacks were children. In interviews, Darfurian villagers talk about blistering skin and rashes amongst many other symptoms from chemical exposure.

The struggle of Sudan has been a largely silent affair, one that is often overlooked by the media and the rest of the world. The lack of coverage of this conflict happens in spite of the fact that Sudan is currently experiencing the world’s biggest humanitarian crisis since World War II. The fight for power between SAF and RSF has left many areas of Sudan completely destroyed. Families have been forced to flee their homes, crops have been decimated, and villages have been set ablaze.

Since the fighting began, an estimated 150,000 people have been killed, and another 14 million have been displaced. Due to the large influx of people fleeing the conflict, refugee camps in South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Chad have been filled past their capacity. Furthermore, because of the fighting between the Sudanese army and the RSF militia, close to 30 million people in Sudan need assistance in various forms, such as medical attention, food aid, housing, etc. On the border of Chad and Sudan, around 850,000 people are seeking refuge and aid.

Throughout the war, hospitals, schools, and homes have been targeted and destroyed. This is another violation of international humanitarian law, no matter which side targeted civilian infrastructure. With housing and hospitals continuing to be destroyed, food insecurity and malnutrition are steadily increasing.

Conclusion:

When chlorine gas is used, or any gaseous chemical for that matter, it does not discriminate in who is affected. It burns the lungs and restricts the breathing of anyone it touches: combatant, non-combatant, or children. The use of such weapons is in violation of the Chemical Weapons Convention and international humanitarian law. It is a war crime, and it is something that no person, least of all children, should experience.

The war in Sudan has been ongoing for over 2 years now. The people of Sudan continue to suffer, and the conflict shows little sign of ending soon. Moments like this underscore the urgent need for humanitarian aid and media attention.

Culture as a Catalyst: Eswatini as a Leader in Community Health Promotion

Umhlanga, also known as the Reed Dance, is an event filled with color, dancing, and community spirit. Thousands of young women in Eswatini dress in traditional attire and celebrate not only their culture, but also their womanhood. However, there are unique health impacts to the event, as well, because it has served as a health promotion event in recent years. In doing so, it has uplifted safe sex habits, public health resources, and more. The dual impact of this event makes it unique, as it serves to maintain culture and promote health. It serves as a model for how cultural events can be leveraged to promote health and uplift human rights, empowering individuals with access to information, autonomy, and critical care, while connecting women to their own culture.

Umhlanga and Its Cultural Significance

The Kingdom of Eswatini has hosted Umhlanga since the 1940s. The purpose of the event is to celebrate chastity among young women. There is a similar event for young men called Incwala with the same purpose. However, in Umhlanga, the young maidens focus on honoring the Queen Mother through their participation in the ceremony.

This 8-day event draws thousands of young girls from across the kingdom, ranging in age from six to 25. In the 8 days, the young maidens are expected to participate in collecting reeds for the Mother Queen. With a guardian from their township, they travel far and wide to participate in all aspects of the event.

This event is key in health promotion, as it is a quick way to reach a vast audience. With the event hosting visitors from the Southern African region and from around the world, tens of thousands are in attendance. Most importantly, it is the country’s largest meeting of adolescent girls and young women, who constitute a group disproportionately affected by HIV in Eswatini. With support being mobilized by the government, it fosters trust among the constituency, which helps promote long-term health.

Where Public Health and Culture Intersect

Historically, the event has been known to provide key resources to young women; in 2002 alone, over 15,000 packets of books were distributed to young women, and additional resources, supported by local NGOs, were shared with the girls through presentations. The reintroduction of the event was praised as a way to connect the community, and, surprisingly, as a way to slow HIV/AIDs in the country. In 2019, the Kingdom of Eswatini and the Ministry of Health partnered with Population Services International (PSI) for the first time. This collaboration provided free HIV self-test kits and promoted voluntary male circumcision. Since then, collaboration has been robust in supporting the young women and their health needs through resources and information provided by Khulisa Umntfwana, NATICC, Edutainment, the Imbali Foundation, and many others.

These are key, as getting testing for HIV in Eswatini can be linked with a lot of stigma. Despite the prevalence of the disease in the country, testing levels for adolescent girls and young women are relatively low; this is tied to many factors, such as testing interventions not wanting to test young girls, them not being in a healthy environment to accept the results, and the judgment that exists around testing. With self-testing kits, these barriers are overcome, making it easier for women to know their health status and take the necessary precautionary measures to protect their health.

As a result of the partnership, from 2019 to 2020, over ten thousand kits were distributed to anyone who needed them, and there was a spike in clinic visits to discuss testing and male circumcision. Voluntary medical male circumcision is associated with an approximately 60% reduction in the risk for female-to-male transmission of HIV, which further reduces the HIV burden in the country. This change in health behavior is a real-world example of implementing to the right to health. Access to HIV testing is part of the right to health, as developed by the UN’s International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and giving people the tools to know their HIV status respects their autonomy and motivates them to make informed decisions. Especially by targeting adolescent girls and young women, the gap that exists for vulnerable populations is slowly closed, which proves the sustainable impact of the intervention.

Photo 2: Girls preparing to enter the royal grounds to begin the final day of the event.Credits: Wajiha Mekki — Photo 2: Girls preparing to enter the royal grounds to begin the final day of the event.
Credits: Wajiha Mekki

Cultural Acceptance and Health Behavior Change

There are very few events across the world that discuss health behavior in tandem with culture. However, Umhlanga is an example of the success of such intentional programs. By sharing health information that is culturally relevant, rather than siloed by the reality of clinical sciences, it becomes a tangible topic and reduces its level of intimidation. The demystification of the subject also helps improve health-related conversations long-term across the nation. By discussing such a seemingly sensitive topic amongst peers and families, it normalizes it significantly, which can promote additional discussions later on. By working to frame it through empowerment rather than shame, motivating youth to take ownership of their health further reduces the shame some students may have.

This then motivates young women to have key conversations with their partners; from discussing circumcision to using protection, these discussions can occur more quickly and inspire positive change in the long term. This also impacts the national conversation about sexual health, as well, making it easier for older generations to understand the nuances of the issue as it affects younger generations.

Photo 3: Attendees from across the kingdom supporting the Reed Dance.Credit: Wajiha Mekki — Photo 3: Attendees from across the kingdom supporting the Reed Dance.
Credit: Wajiha Mekki

Challenges

Although the impact of such an intervention is vast, some challenges exist. One is the role of consent and autonomy. Especially for the male circumcision, it must not be coerced. All procedures and testing should be done with the utmost privacy and confidentiality.

There is also concern about how Umhlanga truly mobilizes women’s empowerment and addresses gender roles. Historically, it has served to promote chastity among girls, and navigating culture and gender roles has sparked a debate on the role of dance and its intersection with health. To fully promote human rights, key health interventions must be communicated in ways that avoid exploitation or disrespect of cultural contexts.

Human Rights

An observable truth from Eswatini and the role Umghlanga has in the community is seen through its role in promoting female empowerment. Not only are young girls able to feel empowered in their own self, but they also get the chance to gain access to tools critical to gaining control over their health decisions. Especially by supporting rural and underserved communities, this opportunity facilitates increased accessibility to health resources, mobilizes key interventions closer to the community, and ensures equity in the mobilization process.

Overall, Umhlanga is a key cultural event for young Swati girls across the country and has a unique role in supporting public health in the kingdom. It is key for additional integrations to be explored through the country, because when culture and health align, communities are not just healthier, they are freer and more empowered.

Morocco’s Gen Z Protests – A Fight for Human Rights

On a September night, hundreds of young Moroccans gathered outside Hassan II Hospital in Agadir. In hand? Candles for a woman who recently passed while giving birth due to delayed medical advice. Her death was not just a tragedy; instead, it was a spark that brought hundreds of Moroccan youth together, demanding better healthcare, education, and dignity.

Beginning on September 27th, 2025, hundreds of protesters stormed the streets in Rabat, Casablanca, Agadir, Meknes, and Tangier. Of these individuals, 400+ arrests have been made, and at least two have been killed. The extent of the protest makes it the most significant youth movement in Morocco since 2011.

Photo 1: Protestor getting detained in Meknes, Morocco.
Credit: Yousra Bounuar

What is Gen Z?

Gen Z is made up of young individuals born between 1997 and 2012. Equipped with technological savvy, Gen Z is known to be the most digitally immersed group to date. This unique knowledge strengthens their ability to connect and elicit change.

Global Protests

The protests in Morocco come at a time when Gen Z around the world are organizing with one another. Examples around the world include Nepal, where a recent ban on social media to silence an anti-corruption campaign sparked backlash; Madagascar, where youth are demanding that the government address high levels of poverty and corruption; and Peru, where protesters are also demanding that the state fight corruption. All of this represents a historic trend of Gen Z being known as a generation that seeks momentous change.

The Beginning

The protests in Morocco represent anger towards a system stretched thin. Over the past few years, Morocco has faced myriad burdens that have impacted the community significantly. There is significant youth unemployment, with around 22.1% of youth in the country being unemployed. This limits their ability to support their families and to find opportunities that would support upward socioeconomic mobility.

Beyond this, there are additional burdens that impact Morocco’s healthcare abilities. One is the low doctor-to-patient ratio; especially in the more southern regions, 7.8 doctors can serve around 10,000 patients, which is quite far from the WHO’s recommended ratio. This is seen in tandem with the high maternal mortality rate of women in the country, which stands at around 70 deaths per 100,000 births. Clearly, there are significant disparities that impact the health outcomes of those around the country.

Whilst all of this was happening, the state continued to invest in the FIFA 2030 World Cup stadium. This investment was significant, with billions of dirhams being allocated to build stadiums at the same time that hundreds of healthcare facilities were underfunded.

The Turning Point

The nuances of the burdens faced by Moroccans across the country elicited tensions that bubbled into a full-on protest, catalyzed by the death of a young expectant mother. As the vigil began, hashtags began to flood Moroccan social media. From #GenZ212 to #WeDeserveBetter, thousands were speaking out for the need for investment in the community rather than in stadiums. From education to healthcare, protestors across the country were advocating for additional resources to be funneled to communities, rather than foreign investors. These protests mobilized throughout the entire country, and, as expected, the increased presence of activists led to a corresponding rise in police presence.

Though many protesters were peaceful, armed police used armored vehicles and tear gas to impact the protestors. Videos circulated of rubber bullets and tear gas being administered to protestors. This, in combination with the detention of journalists, resulted in public disorder. The infringement of peaceful assembly and freedom of expression resulted in dangerous outcomes for many involved. With over 400 detained, 37 charged, and at least two deaths, the effects of government intervention are undeniable. It is true that, as a way to address the qualms of the young protestors, the government worked to mobilize social reforms to support development across the country, mainly in rural areas. However, this was in conjunction with the critical increase of police conducting mass arrests and abusing peaceful demonstrators.

The World Is Watching

The violation of various human rights has met with protests in Morocco. By limiting freedom of assembly and engaging in increased policing of expression with the censorship of journalists, there are many explicit violations of human rights that have occurred as a result of the protests. Additionally, the right to health and work are being violated by the underfunded healthcare facilities and unemployment crisis, which creates the need for action. As Morocco is a signatory to both the ICCPR and ICESCR, it is integral that the country upholds these rights not just on paper, but in practice as well. Right now, the current situation is rife with suppression, neglect, and censorship — in direct opposition to the mandates of the ICCPR and ICESCR.

Most recently, the United Nations Human Rights Office called for restraint. This was focused on being able to respect citizens’ right to assembly. With Morocco’s current rank as 129th out of 180 countries on the 2024 World Press Freedom Index, the crisis demonstrates the need for sustainable change in the country.

The Need for Reform

Morocco can work and explore ways to improve the outcomes for its country. The youth in Morocco are not calling for a revolution: they are calling for reform. With improved hospital systems and jobs that sustain families, they want a country that enforces institutions and protects and uplifts its citizenry.

It is essential that Morocco upholds its human rights obligations over international partnerships. When working with the international community, all partners should work to ensure that sports and trade do not come at the expense of the community, accountability, and justice.

From Stigma to Strategy: Egypt’s Fight Against Cervical Cancer

Egypt, known as the mother of the world, has made headlines for its global health impact. From eradicating malaria to tackling hepatitis C, it has made strides to protect the health of its nation. However, women’s health seems to be on the back burner for the country. Egypt, a country rich in history and culture, remains a country that grapples with stigma and systemic inequality. The health issues still faced by the country are not just surrounding public health, but also human rights.

The Silent Crisis

Cervical cancer is rarely discussed. It is a preventable and treatable disease, primarily caused by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV). This burden is seen throughout the world, but especially the Middle East and North African region, which carries a unique incidence, being 24% in the Sub-Saharan region. Though there is variability through the region, Egypt faces large challenges to approaching HPV reduction. In Egypt, however, this is not frequently discussed, even though a population of 25.76 million women over the age of 15 are at risk of developing cervical cancer due to the lack of interventions that exist. The prevalence of HPV in Egypt in 2014 was 10.4%, with the highest rate occurring in women 45-54 years old. Beyond this, over 800 women die each year from cervical cancer in Egypt, with thousands more facing delayed diagnoses, impacting their ability to respond to treatment. A variety of factors contribute to the development of the illness in Egypt, ranging from knowledge gaps to a lack of vaccines accessible to marginalized communities. The number of infected individuals has been increasing steadily for various reasons, indicating the burden of illness in the country

The silence around cervical cancer is a product of overlapped gender stigma and medical discrimination. Some women have even reported feeling unsafe and scared about mentioning HPV and cervical cancer, due to the perception of external pressure. This results in women feeling less comfortable seeking out information and support before and during the onset of the illness, negatively impacting their outcomes.

Political Barriers

In Egypt, HPV and cervical cancer prevention is not just a medical issue; it is also deeply political. Policies have worked to make healthcare generally less accessible. An example of this was recent legislation passed in 2024. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi signed legislation that allows private sector entities to operate and manage public health facilities on a for-profit basis. This is dangerous for the citizens of Egypt, especially those who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who rely on subsidized healthcare. The consequences of this in terms of HPV prevention are significant; laws like these limit the availability of accessible interventions that individuals can trust long-term, as there would be uncertainty regarding the long-term implications of their results. This mistrust could cause individuals not to seek vaccine opportunities and consequent treatment, if applicable, which would increase the burden of the disease in Egypt overall.

There are some humanitarian barriers that exist to helping reduce the onset of HPV and cervical cancer in Egypt. One is that of humanitarian support. With entities like the WHO and UN mobilizing care to millions across the world, their reach and impact is quite vast. With oncoming political crises, climate change, and more, many high-income countries are leveraging support for their low-income and middle-income peers. However, these programs, integral to global health security, are coupled with concerns about aid effectiveness and donor notices. Historically, donors have rewarded improved outcomes in governance and human rights; however, now, donors have worked to avoid “spillovers,” which is the impact of immigration policies in a country beyond the intended scope into their own country due to instability and migration flow. Though Egypt does not fall into this category as a state risky for aid support, it could be tangentially related. The country has faced many issues, ranging from security to freedom of speech attacks, resulting in lower spending on social protection, health, and education than would otherwise be possible, opening an outlet for the onset of disease in Egypt.

Social Barriers

Identity and culture also influence the onset of HPV as a precursor to cervical cancer. Those born female have an increased risk of developing HPV, a risk that is then compounded by class and socioeconomic status. In Egypt, there were around 1,300 new cases and 744 deaths from cervical cancer in 2023 alone. The incidence to death ratio is alarming considering that cervical cancer is preventable with a vaccine.

A lot of entities have tried to work to see how adverse outcomes in communities can be reduced. Ranging from the Egyptian Society of Women’s Health to NGO sites, there have been some improvements in reducing the HPV and cervical cancer incidence in Egypt. However, these interventions are not being adjusted to support the need of rural communities, leaving them underserved. This results in additional barriers for these communities to gain the access to healthcare they deserve.

HPV and the Fight for Human Rights

The societal silencing of the HPV issue results in additional challenges to addressing the health inequities that are present in Egypt when it comes to cervical cancel. As many women stay quiet about their diagnosis, they are unable to live their best lives and advocate for themselves. Women’s healthcare is a tool to improve life outcomes, and human rights will be best served by working to not only increase access to interventions, but also ensure that they are equitable for all Egyptian women across the world.

Child Marriage in Niger: A Deep-Rooted Crisis and the Path Forward

Map of Niger — Image 1: Map pointing to Niger. Source: Yahoo! Images

Overview 

Niger has the highest frequency of child marriage globally, with 76% of girls getting married before turning 18 and 28% married by the age of 15. The health, education, and opportunities for girls are all significantly impacted by this prevalent practice. Although the problem is sustained by cultural customs, financial constraints, and gender norms, initiatives by regional authorities, global organizations, and civic leaders are encouraging hope for change. The causes, effects, and strategies for ending child marriage in Niger will all be covered in this piece. 

Understanding the Root Causes of Child Marriage 

Poverty and Financial Pressures 

One of the primary causes of child marriage in Niger is economic hardship. Many families struggle to support their children while living in poverty. In these situations, marrying girls at an early age often seems like a sensible solution. To help with their immediate financial burdens, families may get dowries or other financial benefits. However, young brides are often denied access to education, reducing their future earning potential; this exchange keeps females trapped in poverty cycles. 

Cultural and Social Norms 

Child marriage is mainly influenced by cultural customs and societal standards. Early marriage is viewed as a way to maintain family honor in many communities. In an effort to preserve their virginity and avoid premarital pregnancies, which might shame their family, girls tend to get married before they experience their first menstrual cycle.
These societal standards usually limit women’s duties to that of mother and wife, which deters people from funding their education. 

Limited Access to Education 

One of the most effective ways to prevent child marriage is through education, yet many Nigerien girls still lack access to it. There are often no schools in rural areas, and cultural norms favor boys’ education. Families who believe that females’ primary job is in the home may consider education unimportant, even in cases where it is available. This restricted access perpetuates early marriage and poverty cycles. 

The Harsh Consequences of Child Marriage 

Health and Maternal Mortality 

There are serious health risks for child brides, especially during pregnancy and childbirth. Adolescent pregnancies and early marriages are directly associated with Niger’s high maternal death rate. Due to their underdeveloped bodies, girls are more susceptible to complications, including obstetric fistulas and even death. Health issues not only endanger young moms but also affect their children, who have a higher likelihood of experiencing newborn complications and mortality. 

Psychological Impact 

Equally important are the psychological repercussions of child marriage. Many child brides suffer from depression, anxiety, and loneliness. They miss opportunities for personal growth and lack autonomy in their relationships because they are forced to leave their childhoods behind. These girls frequently experience abusive relationships, which adds to their trauma. 

Economic Disempowerment 

Economic disempowerment cycles are perpetuated by child marriage.  Girls who marry at a young age often abandon their education, limiting their access to jobs and financial independence. Leaving abusive or exploitative situations can be very challenging. As a result, this cycle continues, making their children more likely to experience poverty. 

Ongoing Efforts to End Child Marriage 

Governmental and Legislative Measures 

In accordance with global commitments, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the Nigerian government has taken action to combat child marriage. The legal marriage age has been raised to 18 by legislative reforms, but enforcement is inconsistent because customary law is still so prevalent. The government has adopted policies to enhance girls’ access to education and healthcare, recognizing these as essential elements of its national development plans. 

Community-Based Interventions 

Local leaders, including religious and traditional figures, play a crucial role in the fight against child marriage. Programs that engage these leaders help challenge and change the cultural norms that support this practice. Awareness campaigns and community discussions highlight the importance of education for girls and the health risks associated with child marriage. 

Education and Empowerment Initiatives 

Education is central to eliminating child marriage. Organizations working in Niger have implemented life skills programs to empower girls, providing them with knowledge and confidence to make informed decisions about their futures.  Additionally, initiatives to make schools safer and more accessible encourage families to prioritize their daughters’ education over early marriage. 

Economic Support Programs 

To address the economic causes of child marriage, families need financial support. Programs that provide financial aid or micro-loans lessen the pressure on daughters to marry young. By supporting families to reach financial stability, these programs allow them to invest in their children’s education and long-term welfare. 

Challenges and Future Directions 

Even with improvements, there are still major obstacles.  Laws against child marriage are not strictly enforced, especially in rural areas where customs predominate. The ongoing commitment to conventional values held by many families and community leaders undermines legal reforms. Change is also still hindered by economic disparity and restricted access to high-quality education. A comprehensive strategy is required to effectively combat child marriage. This includes: 

-Strengthening Law Enforcement: It is essential to ensure that laws against child marriage are continually enforced, especially in remote areas. To effectively handle situations of child marriage, local authorities and court officials must undergo training. 

– Expanding Educational Access: Education infrastructure should be invested in, especially in rural areas. Offering financial aid and other incentives may encourage parents to continue sending their girls to school. 

– Empowering Girls: Girls can oppose early marriages and fight for their futures with the support of empowerment programs that enhance their self-esteem and awareness of their rights. 

– Economic Development: The financial strains that lead to child marriage can be lessened by increasing family livelihood opportunities. Potential channels for economic development include agricultural assistance, small business grants, and vocational training. 

– Community Engagement: Local communities must support sustainable change. To alter societal norms, it is necessary to educate the public and engage religious and traditional authorities in the fight against child marriage. 

Path Forward 

In Niger, child marriage is a complex problem with roots in gender disparity, cultural customs, and poverty. In addition to devastating the lives of innumerable girls, the practice hinders the nation’s larger goals for development. Reform can occur through the collaborative efforts of local communities, international organizations, and the Nigerian government. Niger can end child marriage and provide a better future for its girls through offering economic assistance, education, and empowerment. Every action—whether it’s a family deciding to support their daughter’s goals, a community leader pushing for change, or a girl reclaiming her right to an education—brings the nation one step closer to this critical milestone. 

The Human Rights Concerns of Migration into North Africa

The human rights violations noted against Sub-Saharan African migrants have been increasing exponentially across North Africa, specifically in Tunisia. Tunisia is a transit country for many migrants to reach Europe, being the most significant departure point for migrants crossing the Mediterranean; the physical actions against migrants and the political bias have inherently made it difficult for many different communities to continue their journey.

History of Sub-Saharan Immigration

Photo 1: Photo of a refugee camp.Source: Flickr — Photo 1: Photo of a refugee camp.
Source: Flickr

For hundreds of years, people have migrated from Sub-Saharan Africa to Northern Africa; in 2020, it was estimated that 61 percent of migrants into North Africa were from Africa. Tunisia has been a key destination because it is relatively stable both socioeconomically and politically. Irregular migration into the country has been pertinent since the early 1990s. However, a surge in migration was observed in 2011, when over 27,000 migrants were intercepted in Tunisia with plans to continue to Europe. A similar spike was noted in early 2020, with over 35,000 migrants intercepted when departing from the country. These values tell the story of those who were intercepted by the government and do not account for those who weren’t able to complete their journey beyond Tunisia.

Largely, migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are males who have taken the step into a new journey to hopefully promise a better life for their families; these individuals are quite young, being anywhere from 18 to 35 years old. Generally, there are varying reasons why people migrate to Tunisia; data collected in 2018 suggests that 52% of migrants emigrated for economic reasons, 22 percent migrated to study, and 25 percent are potential victims of human trafficking. All of these come via different routes; though land routes are quite popular, an overwhelming majority of migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa come by air travel, leveraging visa-on-arrival opportunities. As these are often three-month tourist visas, many overstay the visa to work in different fields ranging from tourism to hospitality to construction. Beyond those visas, other avenues are explored by migrants to enter Tunisia; one is that of human-smuggling networks. These networks are oftentimes characterized by two-fold movements: into Tunisia via land and then outside of Tunisia via maritime routes. For those without passports, many individuals pay hundreds of dollars to get to North Africa.

Drivers of Migration

When faced with difficulties, many people seek out-migration as an avenue to explore. One reason why migration into Tunisia has increased is economic burdens. The World Bank has estimated that youth unemployment in Sub-Saharan Africa is around 10.2 percent. This has resulted in many youths moving to North Africa to seek out new opportunities.

Another factor is environmental factors. With increased burdens associated with climate change, such as increased temperatures and deteriorating soil quality, it is observed as a driver, as well. By 2025, Sub-Saharan Africa could see as many as 86 million climate migrants; though this number is represented by a value of internal and external migration, this has been a force that has impacted current migration patterns into Tunisia.

Domestic Concerns

To respond to the increased migration, the Tunisian government has had a unique role in the development of action. While Tunisia has been vocal about human rights and has demonstrated international support, the application of their signatures often falls short.

Raids and arrests, outlining attacks against human rights, have been increasing significantly. This, coupled with improper immigration-specialized facilities, has resulted in many people not being treated fairly. These centers have not met international standards, according to international observers like OMCT (World Organization Against Torture), due to inadequate sanitary conditions and poor infrastructure. To respond to these abuses and oversight, the government of Tunisia established the National Authority for the Prevention of Torture, which has unfortunately faced limited access to detention centers, further allowing continuous attacks against the human rights of those in detainment.

Human Right Abuses

Different abuses have been noted against Sub-Saharan migrants in Tunisia. Physical violence has been most prominent during arrests, raids, and detainment. Over 85 percent of Black Africans had reported violence from these security forces. These abuses have been conducted by police, the National Guard, and many other entities.

Medical abuse is also quite prominent as well, especially for those in detention facilities. Many migrants are uneducated about the nuances of Tunisian healthcare in the country and their access rights. This results in inaccurate information being more accessible than a healthcare professional. Within the conversation of accessing healthcare, there is a unique level of pressure put on female migrants; though there are not as many women who migrate to Tunisia, those who do face challenges ranging from building rapport with the health system, accessing insurance information for prenatal care, and navigating social implications of feminine care.

Mental health is also a huge issue for many migrants in Tunisia; an overwhelming 47 percent of migrants experience depression, 10 percent experience adaptation stress, and 9 percent experience PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder). These, coupled with the general stress of migration and the expectation to reach Europe, can have overwhelming effects on their mental health. Without the resources necessary to treat it, they are left even more vulnerable than when they came.

Economic exploitation is another abuse noted against Sub-Saharan African Migrants in Tunisia. 35% of migrant workers experience poor working conditions, many of whom eventually change jobs for a plethora of reasons ranging from exploitation, which is the most frequent incident, to violence to harassment. As many of these workers participate in the informal economy, as young people generally make up 32 percent of the informal sector, they are not equally as protected compared to those who are in the formal sector.

When looking at the abuses against communities, it is integral that international communities advocate against these injustices and work to support vulnerable communities like migrant ones. Without checks and balances, support is limited for these communities, allowing systematic discrimination to take precedence.