armed conflict – UAB Institute for Human Rights Blog

Clean Energy, Poor Practices: Africa’s Minerals Power Renewables

At the second African Climate Summit, leaders discussed the role of Africa’s critical minerals in climate change and sustainable development. The African Union’s joint statement at the global COP30 climate summit highlighted the continent’s potential to be a climate leader, with its “abundant natural resources, […] young and dynamic workforce, and vast renewable energy potential.” This article examines Africa’s mineral industry, which could be key to the fight against the climate crisis.

Africa’s Minerals and Renewable Energy

The world is moving away from fossil fuels and towards clean energy, as renewables become the world’s dominant energy source. This is necessary to limit emissions and strive toward climate goals such as the Paris Agreement’s commitment to keeping the global temperature increase under 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, but non-fossil fuel renewable energy alternatives also require the extraction of Earth’s natural resources.

As countries across the world push forward with the latest energy transition—the shift from traditional energy sources like coal and oil to renewable energy like wind and solar—Africa’s mineral deposits are increasingly critical to supplying the world’s energy. They store much of the world’s “transition minerals,” natural resources used in renewable technologies like lithium-ion batteries and solar panels. At the Africa Climate Summit 2025, the UN Economic Commissioner for Africa warned that there was the potential to “repeat the exploitative patterns of the past,” as the demand for the minerals used in renewable technologies increases.

The transition mineral industry is fraught with human rights abuses, notably labor rights violations and environmental injustices. Violations of the 23rd article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which protects workers’ rights to favorable working conditions and living wages, are commonplace. The Democratic Republic of the Congo has been at the center of conversations regarding Africa’s mining industry, where conflict, illegal mining operations, and smuggling endanger the people who provide the minerals for the world’s technology.

Exploitation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)

The Business and Human Rights Resource Centre tracked 178 cases of abuse from 2010-2024 in the transition mineral industry; mines in the DRC accounted for over half of these abuses. In a 2023 report, Amnesty International found that “multinational mining companies are forcibly evicting communities from their homes and farmlands in the name of energy transition mining” in the DRC. The exploitation present in the DRC is exacerbated by violent conflict, corporate irresponsibility, and the prevalence of illegal, dangerous operations.

Miners carry supplies in an African mine — Miners carry supplies in a mine. Rubaya, DRC. By: Erberto Zani. Source: Adobe Stock. Asset ID#: 1047185175

Conflict Minerals in the DRC

Key to the conflict between the DRC government and the Rwanda-backed M23 rebel group has been control of valuable mines, like Rubaya’s coltan mine. Coltan is an ore that contains tantalum, which is used in the electric car batteries that are key to reducing fossil fuel reliance in transportation. In Rubaya, armed militants patrol impoverished workers, including children, who earn a meager wage to mine and transport coltan. A UN report revealed that a Rwandan exporter purchased coltan that was smuggled by militant groups in the DRC, funding the M23’s deadly offensive in the Eastern DRC. When minerals are used to finance and compound human rights abuses, they are called “conflict minerals.”

Conflict Minerals in the Corporate Supply Chain

Tesla, which uses tantalum in their products, outlines a “responsible materials policy” and explicitly states that it has made efforts to “eliminate from [their] value chain any benefits [their] sourcing of these materials may give to armed groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and its adjoining countries.” However, a Global Witness report details how smuggled minerals, like coltan from Rubaya, are sourced from unvalidated mines and “laundered,” ending up in the global supply chain. The report names Tesla as one of the companies potentially profiting from this system. The use of conflict minerals in consumer products is just one facet of the human rights implications of transition minerals. Another important aspect to consider is how these natural resources are obtained.

Electric cars charging at charging station outdoors at sunset. — Electric cars charging at charging station. By: logoboom. Source: Adobe Stock. Asset ID#: 484699085

Unregulated Mining: Ramifications of Informal Operations

Illegal and informal mining operations also put people at risk. Artisanal and small-scale mining sites can expose miners to toxic chemicals like arsenic and cyanide, and the overcrowded conditions produce a high risk of infectious disease, among other dangers. Transition minerals like cobalt are among the resources obtained through artisanal and small-scale mining in the DRC. Harvard researcher Siddarth Kara, in a conversation with NPR, outlines the hazardous conditions, child labor, and corruption embedded in cobalt mining in the DRC. He calls the conditions “modern-day slavery.”

An Overview of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining

The transition mineral industry is driving the use of illegal artisanal and small-scale mining operations in Africa. 10 million sub-Saharan Africans are artisanal and small-scale miners. Artisanal and small-scale mining is a diverse practice, mostly carried out by subsistence miners or small-scale industry, and some believe that artisanal and small-scale mining has the potential to provide critical minerals and drive economic development in Africa. However, it is a complex and controversial practice with consequences for labor and environmental rights.

Artisanal and small-scale mining can be driven by poverty and scarce employment opportunities. Other actors, like Chinese nationals, also participate in the practice, benefiting from what is often an illegal and unregulated system.

Unregulated artisanal and small-scale mining can threaten environmental health, which has downstream effects on human health. Artisanal and small-scale mining has been linked to water pollution, mercury contamination, and reduced water flow to nearby agriculture. Artisanal mining was responsible for high levels of mercury in crops, water, and the miners themselves in Ghana. Others criticize the practice for driving up the cost of living by displacing local activities like food production, thereby trapping workers in a cycle of poverty.

Artisanal miner in Mauritania using mercury, a highly toxic chemical, to agglomerate gold. By: Christophe. Source: Adobe Stock. Asset ID#: 524805503

An Economically Sustainable and Human-Oriented Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector

Despite challenges, the artisanal and small-scale mining sector has the potential to drive economic growth and provide a livelihood for millions of Africans. One proposed step toward a more equitable and community-focused artisanal and small-scale mining sector is formalizing the mining process in a way that does not simply issue more licenses but also considers environmental and social responsibility. A “livelihood-oriented formalization” can mean miners have a secure income rather than working for shelter, food, or a small share of profits; implementing worker safety principles can reduce accidents and limit the spread of communicable disease. Formalizing artisanal and small-scale mining should include a comprehensive reconsideration of the current processes, with the well-being of miners at the forefront.

Corporate and Government Responsibility

Transition mining involves small-scale operations, but large multinational corporations also play a significant role in determining how minerals are obtained. The role of corporate social responsibility in mitigating human rights abuses is controversial. Companies like Tesla, as mentioned before, have come under fire for being complicit in the sale of conflict minerals, and mining companies expel people from their homes. In recent years, multinational corporations have begun to consider themselves as part of the solution to human rights issues in Africa. Corporations that adopt rigorous due diligence standards can offset some of the failures of fragile governments, such as the DRC, in enforcing industry-wide rules.

Hope for an Equitable Transition Mineral Industry

Africa’s critical transition minerals will be vital to replacing fossil fuels that pollute the atmosphere and accelerate climate change. With an equitable structure, the mining industry has the potential to bring jobs and capital to Africa; however, the current prevailing model of unregulated and dangerous mines, conflict-sourced minerals, entrenched poverty, and chronic environmental damage is not sustainable or fair to the people who supply some of the world’s most valuable and necessary resources. In recent years, some legal progress has been made; Congolese miners have won cases against cobalt mining companies for wrongful termination, injury compensation, and union representation. Continuing these efforts could bring about a world powered by renewable energy that doesn’t sacrifice miners’ human rights.

Human Rights Abuses Against Elderly During Armed Conflict

Armed conflict often results in a wide range of human rights violations, including right to life, liberty, and security. Conflict can have a devastating impact on human rights, leaving individuals and communities vulnerable to a range of abuses and violations. Often times, during military conflicts, the elderly are overlooked when it comes to human rights abuses. Despite being among the most vulnerable members of society, the impacts of armed conflict on older people are often underreported, highlighting the need for greater attention and support for this marginalized group. Human Rights Watch released a report addressing the significant human rights violations older people endure during wartime. The report calls for the United Nations (UN) to end the abuses, provide protection, and facilitate humanitarian assistance for the elderly. The report documents a pattern of violations against the elderly in African and Middle Eastern countries experiencing war.

Pattern of Abuses

Older people are more likely to experience a range of physical, emotional, and economic challenges during times of conflict. Government and non-state armed forces have unlawfully attacked and killed older civilians, subjecting them to summary executions, arbitrary arrest and detention, torture and other ill-treatment, rape, abduction and kidnapping, and the destruction of their homes and other property. Older people are more likely to be injured or killed during armed conflict due to their reduced mobility, impaired senses, and other health issues. In the Central African Republic, for example, the armed forces executed Dieudonne, a blind 60-year-old man in July 2017. Many older people rely on family members and caregivers for support, but armed conflict can disrupt these networks, leaving them isolated and vulnerable. In Ethiopia, after Tigrayan forces recaptured most of the Tigray region in 2021, authorities arbitrarily arrested and detained older Tigrayans in Addis Abeba. Amhara forces in control of the Western Tigray zone detained elderly people in overcrowded detention facilities, subjecting them to beatings and other forms of ill-treatment. The stress and trauma of living in a conflict-affected environment can have significant impacts on older people’s mental health and well-being, and may exacerbate pre-existing mental health conditions. In South Sudan during government operations against rebel forces in February 2019, a soldier made a 50 year-old woman carry looted property, beat her with a gun, and raped her repeatedly. Sexual assault can have profound and long-lasting effects on an individual’s mental health and well-being.

Unable to Receive Aid

Another facet of the abuse is that displaced older people cannot access humanitarian aid. People experiencing must flee in order to access basic services such as food, shelter, and medical care. During hostilities, many older people have chosen not to flee their homes because they think they will not be harmed, or they want to protect the land they have had in their families for years. Also, limited mobility and disability lead to fewer elderly choosing to flee. In 2017, Myanmar security forces pushed older people who could not flee back into burning houses. Displaced older people have also faced difficulties in registering for and receiving humanitarian aid. In South Sudan in 2017, displaced older people who sought refuge were more likely to face difficulties in receiving aid than those who fled to Protection of Civilians sites within UN bases. Amnesty International has documented the failure of humanitarian actors to meet humanitarian standards and be inclusive of older people in their responses to conflict-driven displacements.

Significance

We should be concerned with the gross negligence of elderly’s human rights because every person deserves respect and dignity. Elderly individuals have a wealth of life experience and knowledge to share, and they deserve to be valued and respected for their contributions to society. Due to their age, older people are one of the most vulnerable groups, so it is up to us to do all we can to ensure their safety and protection. Protecting the human rights of elderly individuals is a matter of social justice. As members of society, they have the same rights and entitlements as anyone else, and it is our collective responsibility to ensure that these rights are upheld.

Refugees: Peace of Mind

The Storm Refugees – Tribute To The Victims Of The Harvey Storm. Source: Daniel Arrhakis. Creative Commons.

“Armed conflict kills and maims more children than soldiers,”

-Garca Machel, UNICEF

Global unrest and armed conflict are becoming more common, intense, and destructive. Today, wars are fought from apartment windows, in the streets of villages and suburbs, and where differences between soldiers and civilians immediately vanish. Present day warfare is frequently less a matter of war between opposing armies and soldiers than bloodshed between military and civilians in the same country.

In 2014, there were 42 armed conflict, resulting in 180,000 deaths worldwide. Civilian death tolls in wartime increased from 5 per cent at the turn of the century to more than 90 per cent in the wars of the 1990s. War and armed conflict is one of the most traumatic experiences any human can endure, and the brunt of this trauma is felt by civilians- most especially children. In 2015 alone, some 75 million children were born into zones of active conflict. As of May 2016, one in every nine children is raised in an active zone of conflict. Two hundred and fifty million young people live in war zones, with the number refugees at its most prominent since World War II. Currently, there are 21.3 million refugees worldwide, and half of them children.

For refugees, the events leading up to relocation (notably war and persecution), the long and unsafe process of relocation, settlements in refugee camps, and overall disregard for human rights, takes a major emotional and mental toll. PTSD, depression, anxiety, and sleeping disorders are just few of many problems refugee children experience. Respecting human rights is essential to society’s overall mental health. Equally, a society’s mental health is essential for the enjoyment of basic human rights. Addressing the psychological needs of victims of armed conflict is essential for the prosperity of war-battered children’s future.

The Relationship between Mental Health and Human Rights
Armed conflict affects all aspects of childhood development – physical, mental, and emotional. Armed conflict destroys homes, fragments communities, and breaks down trust among people, thereby undermining the very foundations of most children’s lives. The psychological effects of loss, grief, violence, and fear a child experiences due to violence and human right violations must also be considered.

Throughout the process of becoming a refugees, the three main stages in which people experience traumatic and violent experiences include: 1) the country of origin, 2) the journey to safety, and 3) settlement in a host country. The interrelationship between human rights and mental health are recognized in various universal human right conventions and resolutions. Numerous legislative measures exists for mental health, but two main conventions that address the situations refugees experience include: 1) Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and 2) The Convention on the Rights of a Child. These two conventions specially address mental health pertaining to violence.

Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment: 1987
This Convention is significant towards the promotion of mental health as a human right because “torture,” any act that creates severe pain or suffering, can be both physical and mental. This convention is particularly relevant to refugees because they are more vulnerable and susceptible to mental and physical torture. The short video documentary released by the UNHCR provided refugees and migrants to tell their own stories of kidnap and torture during their journeys to Europe. The stories told by survivors are emotionally distressing but highlights the realities refugees continuously experience.

The Convention on the Rights of a Child: 1990
The Convention on the Rights of a Child is the first legally binding international instrument to integrate the full array of human rights. This convention is also an important document for mental health. The CRC explicitly highlights the significance of both the physical and psychological wellbeing of a child. This convention is particularly important because it addresses the relationship of affect armed conflict on mental health. First, Article 38 of the Convention highlights state parties’ obligation under international humanitarian law to protect the civilian population in armed conflicts, and shall “take all feasible measures to ensure protection and care of children who are affected by an armed conflict.” International humanitarian law is a set of rules which aim, for humanitarian purposes, to minimize and protect persons from the effects of armed conflict. Second, Article 39 of the Convention states “States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and psychological recovery and social reintegration of a child victim of: any form of neglect,… torture or any other form of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; or armed conflicts.” For children refugees, the Convention on the Rights of a Child is an imperative document for the security of their right to mental health, and mental health services.

Barriers to Accessing Health Care Services
The process of becoming a refugee takes a tremendous emotional and mental toll on all refugees. PTSD, depression, anxiety, and sleeping disorders are just few psychological diagnoses given to refugee children. The fundamental right to mental health care is addressed in various international standards, such as the Convention of the Rights of the Child, however, there continues to be numerous barriers preventing access to these services. There has been an unparalleled surge in the number of refugees worldwide, the majority of which are placed in low‐income countries with restricted assets in mental health care. Currently, responsibility for mental health support to refugees is divided between a network of agencies, including the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the World Health Organization (WHO), government, and nonprofit organizations. Yet, the reality is that most refugees with mental health problems will never receive appropriate services. Cultural barriers, such as language, persistently affect a refugee’s capability to utilize mental health series. A study examining health care barriers of post-settlement refugees reveals language is the most impeding cultural barrier to accessing healthcare. Refugees and mental health service providers often do not speak the same language, making successful communication during healthcare visits less effective. Language barriers affect every level of the healthcare system, from making an appointment to filling a prescription. A lack of multilingual interpreters for refugees and health care providers weakens the healthcare system, making miscommunication about diagnoses and treatments possibilities common. Lastly, stigma surrounding mental health is another barrier to health services. Refugees often feel the words “mental health issues” should be reserved for individuals with extreme learning disabilities, and do not understand mental health problems can be conditions like depression and anxiety.

Psychopathologies due to trauma are very powerful, however, recovery is possible. In Judith Herman’s book Trauma and Recovery, she discusses her theory of recovery. She states recovery happens in three stages: 1) establishment of safety, 2) remembrance and mourning, 3) re-connection with ordinary life.

Stage 1: Safety
Trauma diminishes the victims’ sense of control, power, and overall feeling of safety. The first stage of treatment focuses establishing a survivor’s sense of safety in their own bodies, with their relations with other people, in their environment, and even their emotions. Self-care is also an important focus point during this stage. The purpose of this stage is to get victims to believe they can take protect and take care of themselves, and they deserve to recover.

Stage 2: Remembrance and Mourning
The second stage of Herman’s recovery theory highlights the choice to confront trauma of the past rests within the trauma survivor. It’s important for victims to talk about their goals and dreams before the trauma happened so they can reestablish a sense of connection with the past. That second stage begins by reconstructing the trauma beginning with a review of the victim’s life before the horrors and situations leading up to the trauma. This second step is to reconstruct the traumatic event as a recitation of fact. The goal of this step is to put the traumatic event into words, and come to terms with it. Testimonies are ways for survivors to get justice, feel acknowledged, and find their voice.

Stage 3: Reconnecting
In the final stage, the victim focuses on reconnecting with oneself and the recreation of an ideal self that visits old hopes and dreams. The third stage also focuses on emotionally and mentally reconnecting with other people and social reintergration. By this stage the victim should have the capacity to feel trust in others. A small but influential minority of individuals revolutionize the meaning of their trauma and tragedy, and make it the foundation for social change.

Peace. Source: John Flannery. Creative Commons.

A Peaceful Future
Even though human rights activists are not psychological clinicians, we can still contribute to the success of these stages. At present, more than half of the refugee children population are children. Despite the violence these children have experienced, refugee children are the foundation and hope for a peaceful future. However, for that to happen, refugee children need to find peace in themselves. Respecting human rights is essential to society’s overall mental health. As activists we need to advocate for refuges and children who don’t have a voice. Activists for human and mental health rights should start focusing their goals on ensuring their communities and hospitals contain mental health care provisions. As activists, we can lobby for more accessible mental health services throughout our health care system, join and volunteer at non-profit organizations, and advocate for the rights of refugees. As Herman Melville states, “we cannot live only for ourselves. A thousand fibers connect us with our fellow men.”